Observational learning — learning by observing the behavior of others (models) — was systematically studied by Albert Bandura, whose social learning theory demonstrated that much human learning occurs vicariously rather than through direct reinforcement. Bandura's Bobo doll experiments (1961, 1963) showed that children who watched an adult behave aggressively toward an inflatable doll subsequently imitated the aggressive behavior, even without being directly reinforced for doing so.
Bandura's Four Processes
Bandura identified four essential processes in observational learning. Attention: the observer must attend to the relevant features of the model's behavior. Retention: the observed behavior must be encoded and stored in memory. Reproduction: the observer must be capable of physically performing the behavior. Motivation: the observer must have an incentive to perform the behavior, influenced by observed consequences (vicarious reinforcement or punishment) and self-efficacy (belief in one's ability to perform).
Vicarious Reinforcement
A key feature of observational learning is that the observer learns from the model's consequences without experiencing those consequences directly. Seeing a model rewarded for a behavior (vicarious reinforcement) increases the likelihood of imitation, while seeing a model punished (vicarious punishment) decreases it. This distinction between learning (acquiring the knowledge) and performance (displaying the behavior) is crucial — observational learning can occur without any overt behavior, only being expressed when conditions are appropriate.
The discovery of mirror neurons — neurons that fire both when performing an action and when observing the same action performed by another — provides a possible neural mechanism for observational learning. Found initially in monkey premotor cortex by Rizzolatti and colleagues, mirror neuron systems may enable the observer to internally simulate the model's actions, facilitating both understanding and imitation. However, the role of mirror neurons in human observational learning remains debated.
Applications
Observational learning has applications in education (modeling effective strategies), clinical psychology (modeling therapy for phobias), media effects (influence of violent media on aggression), health behavior (modeling healthy behaviors), and skill training. The principles apply across the lifespan, from infants' imitation of facial expressions to adults' adoption of cultural practices through observation of social norms.