Fergus Craik (1935-2024) was a leading memory researcher best known for the levels of processing framework, developed with Robert Lockhart in 1972. This framework proposed that memory depends not on which memory store information enters (as in the Atkinson-Shiffrin model) but on the depth to which it is processed during encoding. Deeper, more meaningful processing produces stronger, more durable memories than shallow, surface-level processing — a simple but powerful principle with profound implications for learning and education.
Levels of Processing
The framework distinguishes between shallow processing (analyzing physical features — what does the word look like?), intermediate processing (phonemic analysis — what does the word sound like?), and deep processing (semantic analysis — what does the word mean?). Experiments consistently show that semantic processing produces the best memory, even when participants do not intend to learn the material (incidental learning). The key insight is that memory is a natural byproduct of the type of processing performed — you do not need to try to memorize; you need to think deeply about meaning.
The framework has been refined over decades. Craik and Tulving (1975) showed that elaboration (richness of encoding) and distinctiveness (uniqueness of the memory trace) are important beyond depth alone. The self-reference effect (better memory for information related to oneself) and the generation effect (better memory for self-generated than passively read information) are consistent with the framework. While criticized for circularity (depth defined by what produces better memory), the levels of processing framework remains a cornerstone of memory theory and practical study advice: process for meaning, not for surface features.