Cognitive Psychology
Developmental PsychologistsJean PiagetLev VygotskyJerome Bruner
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A Complete Reference

Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive psychology is the scientific study of mental processes — how people perceive, attend, remember, think, solve problems, and use language. It examines the internal mechanisms that underlie human thought and behavior.

From the sensory systems that construct our experience of the world, through the attention mechanisms that select what we process, to the memory systems that store and retrieve knowledge — cognitive psychology maps the architecture of the mind.

This reference covers the full landscape — from foundational theories of perception and attention through memory, learning, language, and reasoning, to modern applications in education, clinical practice, AI, and neuroscience.

Mind = f(perception, attention, memory, language, thought)

Key Concepts

Core constructs and processes studied in cognitive psychology.

ATT

Attention

The cognitive process of selectively concentrating on relevant information while ignoring distractions. A fundamental bottleneck in information processing.

Capacity = f(arousal, task demands)
References
  • Broadbent, D. E. (1958). Perception and communication. Pergamon Press. https://doi.org/10.1037/10037-000
  • Posner, M. I. (1980). Orienting of attention. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 32(1), 3–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/00335558008248231
Example

Focusing on a conversation at a noisy party while filtering out background noise (cocktail party effect).

WM

Working Memory

A limited-capacity system for temporarily holding and manipulating information during complex cognitive tasks like reasoning and comprehension.

WM span ≈ 4 ± 1 chunks
References
  • Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. (1974). Working memory. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 8, pp. 47–89). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60452-1
  • Cowan, N. (2001). The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 24(1), 87–114. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X01003922
Example

Holding a phone number in mind while searching for a pen to write it down.

LTM

Long-Term Memory

The relatively permanent storage system that holds vast amounts of information for extended periods, from minutes to a lifetime.

Strength = f(encoding depth, rehearsal, spacing)
References
  • Tulving, E. (1972). Episodic and semantic memory. In E. Tulving & W. Donaldson (Eds.), Organization of memory (pp. 381–403). Academic Press.
  • Squire, L. R. (2004). Memory systems of the brain: A brief history and current perspective. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 82(3), 171–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nlm.2004.06.005
Example

Remembering your childhood home address or how to ride a bicycle decades later.

PER

Perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to produce meaningful experience of the world.

Percept = f(stimulus, prior knowledge, context)
References
  • Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception. Houghton Mifflin.
  • Marr, D. (1982). Vision: A computational investigation into the human representation and processing of visual information. W.H. Freeman.
Example

Recognizing a friend's face in a crowd despite varying lighting and angles.

EF

Executive Function

Higher-order cognitive processes that control and regulate other cognitive abilities and behaviors, including inhibition, shifting, and updating.

EF = inhibition + shifting + updating
References
  • Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex "frontal lobe" tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734
  • Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135–168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750
Example

Suppressing the urge to check your phone while studying for an exam.

ENC

Encoding

The initial learning of information — the process of transforming sensory input into a memory representation that can be stored.

Retention = f(depth, elaboration, distinctiveness)
References
  • Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11(6), 671–684. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(72)80001-X
  • Craik, F. I. M., & Tulving, E. (1975). Depth of processing and the retention of words in episodic memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 104(3), 268–294. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.104.3.268
Example

Creating a vivid mental image to remember a new vocabulary word.

RET

Retrieval

The process of accessing stored information from memory. Success depends on the match between encoding context and retrieval cues.

P(recall) = f(cue-target association, interference)
References
  • Tulving, E., & Thomson, D. M. (1973). Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory. Psychological Review, 80(5), 352–373. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0020071
  • Roediger, H. L., III, & Butler, A. C. (2011). The critical role of retrieval practice in long-term retention. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15(1), 20–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2010.09.003
Example

A familiar scent triggering a vivid childhood memory.

CL

Cognitive Load

The total amount of mental effort being used in working memory. Too much load impairs learning and performance.

CL = intrinsic + extraneous + germane
References
  • Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning. Cognitive Science, 12(2), 257–285. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog1202_4
  • Paas, F., Renkl, A., & Sweller, J. (2003). Cognitive load theory and instructional design: Recent developments. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3801_1
Example

A poorly designed textbook that overwhelms students with irrelevant graphics increases extraneous load.

REP

Mental Representation

Internal cognitive symbols or structures that stand for external reality, including images, propositions, and schemas.

Representation = encode(stimulus, prior knowledge)
References
  • Paivio, A. (1986). Mental representations: A dual coding approach. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195066661.001.0001
  • Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1983). Mental models: Towards a cognitive science of language, inference, and consciousness. Harvard University Press.
Example

Your mental map of your neighborhood that allows you to navigate without GPS.

AUTO

Automaticity

The ability to perform tasks with minimal conscious attention or effort, typically developed through extensive practice.

RT = a + b · log₂(practice trials)
References
  • Schneider, W., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1977). Controlled and automatic human information processing: I. Detection, search, and attention. Psychological Review, 84(1), 1–66. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.1.1
  • Logan, G. D. (1988). Toward an instance theory of automatization. Psychological Review, 95(4), 492–527. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.95.4.492
Example

Experienced drivers shifting gears without conscious thought.

INH

Inhibition

The ability to suppress irrelevant or interfering information and prepotent responses. A core component of executive function.

Interference cost = RT(incongruent) − RT(congruent)
References
  • Stroop, J. R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18(6), 643–662. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054651
  • Aron, A. R., Robbins, T. W., & Poldrack, R. A. (2004). Inhibition and the right inferior frontal cortex. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8(4), 170–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2004.02.010
Example

Resisting the impulse to read a word aloud during a Stroop task when asked to name the ink color.

PRI

Priming

The phenomenon where exposure to one stimulus influences the response to a subsequent stimulus, without conscious awareness.

Priming effect = RT(unprimed) − RT(primed)
References
  • Meyer, D. E., & Schvaneveldt, R. W. (1971). Facilitation in recognizing pairs of words: Evidence of a dependence between retrieval operations. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 90(2), 227–234. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0031564
  • Tulving, E., & Schacter, D. L. (1990). Priming and human memory systems. Science, 247(4940), 301–306. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.2296719
Example

Reading the word 'doctor' speeds up recognition of the word 'nurse' presented immediately after.

FLEX

Cognitive Flexibility

The mental ability to switch between thinking about different concepts or to think about multiple concepts simultaneously.

Switch cost = RT(switch trial) − RT(repeat trial)
References
  • Monsell, S. (2003). Task switching. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7(3), 134–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00028-7
  • Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135–168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750
Example

Adapting your communication style when switching from a casual conversation to a formal presentation.

CHK

Chunking

The process of grouping individual units of information into larger, meaningful units to expand the effective capacity of working memory.

Effective capacity = chunks × items_per_chunk
References
  • Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63(2), 81–97. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0043158
  • Chase, W. G., & Simon, H. A. (1973). Perception in chess. Cognitive Psychology, 4(1), 55–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(73)90004-2
Example

Remembering a phone number as 555-867-5309 rather than ten individual digits.

SCH

Schemas

Organized patterns of thought or behavior that categorize information and the relationships among them. Guide perception, memory, and inference.

Interpretation = schema(stimulus) + context
References
  • Bartlett, F. C. (1932). Remembering: A study in experimental and social psychology. Cambridge University Press.
  • Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children. International Universities Press. https://doi.org/10.1037/11494-000
Example

Your 'restaurant schema' lets you know to wait to be seated, order food, eat, pay, and leave.