Executive functions (EFs) — the higher-order cognitive processes that enable goal-directed behavior, including inhibitory control, working memory updating, and cognitive flexibility — show a protracted developmental trajectory extending from infancy through early adulthood. This protracted development reflects the slow maturation of the prefrontal cortex, the last brain region to reach structural maturity.
Development of Component Functions
Basic inhibitory control emerges in infancy (A-not-B task) and develops substantially between ages 3-7 (performance on tasks like the Day-Night Stroop improves dramatically). Working memory capacity increases gradually throughout childhood and adolescence. Cognitive flexibility (task switching) shows improvements through middle childhood. While basic EFs are present early, the ability to coordinate multiple EF components for complex, flexible goal pursuit continues developing into the early 20s.
Executive function in preschool is a stronger predictor of school readiness and academic success than IQ. Children with better EF show better classroom behavior, stronger math and reading performance, and better social skills. This has motivated EF training programs (such as Tools of the Mind curriculum), though whether EF training produces lasting, transferable improvements remains debated.